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The Sack of Rome (1527) The War of 30 years

Pope Clement VII (Giulio de Medici), forcefully about the war dividing Francis I of Valois, King of France and Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, is the organizer of an anti-imperial league The Holy League of Cognac.
The league, in terms of the papacy, was intended to defend the Papal States by the ambitions of Charles V, once penetrated into northern Italy, it fell to Rome with the intention of unify the peninsula.
The emperor at first tried to peacefully restore the alliance with the Pope, but the refusal of them, decided to intervene militarily.
not able to proceed in person, being engaged on other fronts, the Pope launched against the Colonna family, always an enemy of the Medici.
Cardinal Pompeo Colonna then unleashed his soldiers in the papal city and put the papal court under siege for free, Pope Clement VIII had to renounce the Holy League and pledge alliance with Charles V.
Once free, however, the Pope remained true to the pact and called to his aid Francis I of France.
The emperor then decided armed intervention against the Papal States, Rome and sent a contingent of mercenaries, supposedly controlled by a German general, who had to retire but the war is just beginning. On May 6, 1527
mercenaries troops enter Rome after the death of their general: the Pope manages to escape only through the sacrifice of the entire body of the Swiss guards, using a secret passage that leads him to Castel Sant'Angelo.
troops mercenaries, without pay and lost their captain, then gave it to the systematic looting of the city, then leave room for fever: a year-end in Rome remained an inhabitant out of five.
To stop the looting, Pope Clement VII agreed to pay a substantial sum to the emperor and left Rome at the time of Orvieto.
Three years later, Clement VII crowned Charles V emperor, sealing a renewed alliance: the latter, in turn, undertook to restore the rule of the Medici in Florence, bringing down the republic.

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The German Empire has no administrative unit, territorial and political, but it is a conglomeration of duchies, principalities, ecclesiastical and secular, liberal city.

Rudolf II of Habsburg moved the capital in Bohemia , and tries to convert the whole empire to the Catholic religion : the lack of political commitment, but is soon overthrown by his cousin, and retains only formally the crown and the power over Bohemia. The subjects
Bohemians take advantage, however, in order to extract the 1609 letter of majesty, which guarantees religious freedom to Lutherans.
the death of Rodolfo, the kingdom passes to Matt , leaving the letter of majesty to Bohemia in return for recognition as his successor to the reformist-c ontro Ferdinand of Habsburg, one of the leaders of the Catholic League.

the death of Matthew the capital is returned to Vienna , leaving Prague to a committee of regents, which form a governing majority government, Catholic and Protestant closes the temples. On May 23, 1618
a crowd enters the castle in Prague and precipitates from a window three regents ( the Defenestration of Prague) is the way to a revolution, expelled the Jesuits and the Protestant nobility create a provisional government.
During the summer, the diet, although the Protestant majority, elects to Frankfurt Ferdinand as the new emperor , but at the same time the Bohemian and the Commissioner no longer has the crown prince a Calvinist, Frederick V, Duke of Palatinate that in 1619 made his triumphal entry into Prague.

Allies of Hapsburg Spain, and Bavaria League of Catholic principles.
Allies Bohemia: Transilvania, Venice, Holland and England, but only Transylvania send some troops. In 1620

the Duke of Bavaria invades Bohemia , defeating the enemies in just one hour at the White Mountain . Prague is the looting of abandoned German troops, mind the English branch of the Habsburg besieging the Palatinate.
The crown of Bohemia is declared hereditary possession of the Habsburgs.
In 1622 was conquered Heidelberg, the capital of the Palatinate, and the war could have been done to say, if Ferdinand had not decided to seize Frederick V (king of winter), all land and to remove the title of the Palatinate Elector of Bavaria in favor.

In 1624 the king of Denmark, the Protestant Christian IV, is preparing to take action against the Habsburgs alliance with the German Protestant princes. Meanwhile, Spain reopen hostilities with the United Provinces.
The Danish troops are defeated several times and, after the battle of Lutter, Denmark was forced to sign the peace in Lübeck.
Building on this, Ferdinand II issues a decree providing for the return of all seized goods Catholics: European states were not slow to see the danger of a centralized monarchy in Germany.
In 1630
Swedish troops, led by King Gustav Adolf land on the coast of Pomerania , and obtained an alliance with Saxony, reported a net win imperial army at Leipzig . In 1632
Swedes reported a new victory at Lutzen, but the king remains killed in battle and becomes queen of the small Cristina. In 1635
Swedish troops were finally defeated at Nördlingen and forced to sign the peace in Prague.

In 1635 the French Prime Minister Richelieu declares war on both sides of the dynasty asbrugica (English and German) and offers its assistance to the German Protestant princes and the United Provinces.
In 1643 the French get a big victory against the English at Rocroi , while troops Swedish and French penetrate Bavaria and Bohemia. In

1648 in Westphalia are signed two peace treaties , the first between the Emperor and France , second among German princes, the Emperor and Sweden .
Peace of Westphalia states:
- the allocation of Pomerania Sweden and its entry in the diet
- the entry of dietary
Denmark - the conquest of several city Rhine and most of ' Alsace by France
- the loss of authority of the Emperor, more and more subject to the will of the individual
- the return of title to voter Palatinate, but it is not removed to Bavaria: the Imperial College passes so to eight members.

The war between France and Spain but not end until 1659.

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Physics: definitions General

Physics takes care of everything in the various phenomena can be quantitatively determined .

Experimental method:

1. observation of
2. choice of physical
3. forumlazione hypothesis
4. controlled experiment for testing the hypothesis of the experimental law
5. formulazionel
6. formulation of a theory

A theory is a set of principles that allow interpret data and provide phenomena.

Sizes Individuals must be found through the instruments used to measure and we must therefore give an operational definition :
description of the equipment to be used and the procedure for the measurement of the same .

time (seconds, s) should refer to periodic phenomena.
Initially 86 000-th part of a mean solar day, then the period during which take place 9 billion oscillations in a cesium clock .

Length (meters, m): ten-millionth of the distance between the North Pole and the Equator along the meridian passing through Paris, then the distance traveled by light in vacuum in a 300,000,000 th of a second (because the speed of light is constant).

mass (kilogram, kg) equal to the mass of the sample platinum-iridium kept at the Museum of Weights and Measures at Sevres.



Order of magnitude: the power of 10 that best approximates the number to be expressed.

Direct measurement : direct comparison with the size of a 'unit sample.
Indirect measurement: the value obtained using an analytical report between different sizes.

Calibration : an instrument is calibrated when there correspondence between his response and the value of the quantity to be measured.

Characteristics of:

1. Sensitivity: minimum change of considerable magnitude
2. flow or scale: maximum value of the measurement accuracy
3. : little or no difference in repeated measurement
4. Readiness: responsiveness to changes in the size

measurement error

1. error sensitivity depends on the sensitivity of the instrument used. You choose half of the values \u200b\u200bof sensitivity (eg 0.5 cm) and marks: L = (y + / - 0.5) cm
2. random error: multiple causes undetectable
3. Systematic errors (always downwards or upwards): data problems in the instrument and easy to find. A classic error is the systematic ' parallax error, which depends on the position taken by the observer against the instrument.

For a successful experiment, the measurements should be checked several times and then find a measure which approximates the reality better, eliminating as much as possible of the various errors.
The first method is the arithmetic mean between the various measurements, also calculating the maximum error as semidispersione .
Semidispersione : 1 / 2 (maximum extent - at least so far)
At this point, the size will be obtained the mean + / - the semidispersione.

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The Industrial Revolution (dictated notes)

The importance of technical discoveries (mid-eighteenth century., England):
process of replacing manual labor with machines, then the first in the cotton industry in the wool. In fact, through the invention of the spacecraft flying by Kay, a weaver, had doubled the amount of daily work (see page book. 243 to 244).

Revolution or evolution?
might seem, then, that these inventions of new machines had given rise to the industrial revolution, and this opinion was Karl Marx, who dedicated the fifteenth chapter of "Capital" the machines and large-scale industry " . He identifies also in the manufacturing base of modern industry, as the great inventions of Watt Ankwright and could not have applied if the period of manufacturing had not produced "a large number of skilled workers mechanics."
The term "industrial revolution" that uses Marx had already been used by John Stuart Mill in 1848 and 1844 by F. Engels in "The conditions of the working class in England" , and was then ushered into common use by Toynbee, who in 1884 published his "Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England". Even for Toynbee the origins of the industrial revolution and the replacement of the factory system to the domestic system, were sought largely in the mechanical inventions of the second half of the 700, but he also emphasizes other factors, the significant increase of the population, or processing, through the process of enclosures (enclosures), the medieval open fields in modern and large farms.
These aspects turned his attention to the Mantoux, but with a tendency to reappraise the importance of the machine because, in his view, the invention of the machine was not done at once and since sixteenth century machines were used very ingenious and sometimes very powerful, on the other hand, from manufacturing to large-scale industry is passed through almost imperceptible changes, so you should replace the word machine with a more wide, which should indicate the technical development in all its forms. Also for the
Sombart in transition from home to the previous industry succesivi capitalist industry that there would be no gap when it is assumed that uses the word revolution. That if ever there was the late Middle Ages, after the fifteenth century, when they made significant progress in the technique of mining and metallurgy, when the rapid increase in demand imposed the manufacture of new products and therefore the introduction of new tools work, as in the textile industry, and when, finally, the great changes in market conditions began to artisan prevent the direct purchase of raw materials and put him in the employ of the wholesale merchant.

The take-off or off
An essential feature of these interpretations that insist more on the evolution of revolution is that they tend to overshadow the suffering and hardships that the transition from the old system of production to the next generated classes workers. Just read "The Industrial Revolution" dell'Ashton to see how long the whole process would take place without conflict with the peaceful agreement between the various social classes (sic).
The fact is that these really historical evolution could not understand all the pain that the sum of the industrial revolution had brought with him, and the first thing to do to regain a deep sense of drama was quaella to reaffirm the importance of the fracture made by the industrial revolution in the course of economic development between 700 and 800. This was done by
Rostow, who spoke of "take-off in the direction of a development that is obtained from self" (take-off into self-sustained growth): the takeoff is defined as the time when "in a decade or two, is the fundamental structure of the economy, both the social and political structure of society are transformed in such a way that can be fed regularly after a continuous pace of development "; or the take-off can be defined in two ways: the first covers the period in the life of an economy in which, at the same time, one or more modern industries beginning to determine not only productive but also new features that effects spread on a large scale, the second argues that, because you can have the take-off, an economy must demonstrate the ability to exploit the developments after so well by the emergence of new industries-driving. And 'this demonstration of the ability to move a group of sectors-rail to another, which distinguishes the non-industrial wave of transition from the real take-off.
This functional requirement has been established that the take-off comprises an area of \u200b\u200babout 20 years; such a period is needed to reveal whether a company is able to overcome the structural crisis that the initial gap of development usually brings with it, and that is also able to assimilate that changing technological flow from which sustained development depends. After these statements of the Rostow
supporters of the piecemeal development are now silent. However, Rostow himself was perhaps far from denying a piecemeal development of the economy, though in his book "The porcess of economic growth" (Oxford, 1953) states that in any process of industrialization, we can distinguish several stages: a first pre-industrial revolution characterized by commercial capitalism, of a second off-tak, a third of sustained development, and finally, a fourth of maturity. In fact, Rostow, also starting from the most recent experience of paesei underdeveloped in which it is felt deeply the need for rapid changes in the structure of agriculture and basic primitive, has taken the concept of revolution. This reassessment of the concept of revolution has again led scholars to search for reasons why they were at the base. So, here is list the various factors that Rostow, usually, can contribute to a period of "off": population, agriculture, technology, capital formation and foreign trade. Usually, we said, because what he says is largely the Rostow steeped in sociology, as he tends to apply the same to all guidizio crieteri of similar phenomena that occurred from 700 to present (at the expense of specificity of the different situations).

"Prometheus Unbound" Landes
According to ancient myth, Prometheus was the Titan who stole fire from the gods as a gift to the arts to people with carriers of civilization. The gesture of defiance cost him his divine punishment: chained to a cliff, would a vulture ate his liver for eternity. As the titanic undertaking of Prometheus was alluding to a decisive event in human history, in the same world Landes rivluzione Industrail attaches to the value of a fracture essential, after which nothing will be as before. Prometheus was freed, in other words, the enormous power inherent in capiacità man to manipulate nature has finally full deployment. Landes is committed to a complete reconstruction of the development that Europe saw the phasing out the agricultural economy and small-scale in favor of the indsutriale. The English industrial revolution is the beginning of an era of continuous and rapid transformation that changes and sometimes reverses the values \u200b\u200band the conduct of men in all aspects, economic, social, political, cultural and ideological. The world will never be the same: the states will soon be separated by a gulf in terms of power and welfare, including the developed ones and those who remain tied to an agricultural economy, the traditional social and political relations will be unstoppable shocked by the rise of the bourgeois class. Landes, in short, is among those who interpret the crucial years in between 700 and 800 as a period of radical discontinuity with the past.


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