In 1814 Vienna welcomed the diplomatic representatives of several European countries who were involved in the war against France.
Important issues were actually discussed by four people: the first Austrian minister Metternich, the British Foreign Secretary Castlereagh, Hardenberg Prussian Prime Minister and the Russian Tsar Alexander I.
After reaching many realized the political geography of Europe the big four clashed over the fate of Poland and Saxony: Alexander asked that the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was elevated to the Kingdom of Poland and to assume the crown, while Prussia asked to take control of Saxony, England and Austria were against these demands, a clear support to Russia and Prussia. Recognizing the conflict that was opening, the Foreign Minister Talleyrand offered to England and Austria the alliance of France, and was soon admitted to the fifth congress as "great." The two main issues were resolved through diplomatic channels, fought with the division of realms, and Congress could decide on the two thorniest issues: the containment of France and the principle of legality of the ancient monarchs.
new political:
Birth Weights of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
annexation of Liguria to the Kingdom of Savoy
recognition of the neutrality of the Swiss Confederation of the Rhine to Prussia
Annexation
The German Empire has become the Germanic Confederation, but the degree of national unity remains very low
Italy is divided into eight states and Austria made the claims to hegemony over the whole peninsula
The Kingdom of Naples, after trying to fight against Austria, back in the hands of the Bourbons
The Kingdom of Poland is formally independent, but is subject to political pressure from Russia is
signed the Holy Alliance, to defensive, between Russia, Prussia and Austria signed the Quadruple is
Alliance between Russia, Prussia, Austria and England to control France.
The Italian states:
returned from exile in the Kingdom of Piedmont Sardinia, Vittorio Emanuele I apply the letter of the principle of restoration, removing the Napoleonic Code.
Ferdinand IV unifies the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, creating the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and taking the name of Ferdinand I.
The German Bundestag: German
the diet did not participate in fact only the German states, as well as several European countries and, in particular, the Austria of Metternich, who was also the chair. Against this decision, sided with the company of young people who in 1817 proclaimed a large demonstration in favor of the expulsion of Austria from the German diet: the revolt was suppressed by the army in the blood Metternich. The Austrian Prime Minister also got permission to put universities under tight control and drastically limit the freedom of press and association, by strengthening the police apparatus.
results on the ideological level:
The two main schools of thought are obviously neoassultismo reactionary nationalism, which is accompanied, however, liberalism, based on the centrality of the individual against any political and religious authority. The liberal state should protect the freedom of individuals through elected assemblies and on the basis of a constitutional charter. In an authoritarian state is opposed to the rule of law: in practice this means in the will of a constitutional monarchy. Opposed to this idea and the radical democrats, who see a more coherent republican form of government. The text of the first real theory of liberalism was the Prussian von Humboldt, who argued the need to distinguish between public sphere and private sphere: the only purpose of the state that became negative (punish and suppress), and the items would have to be proactive solely the prerogative of the private. In this current is rifaranno few decades after the historic Tocqueville and John Stuart Mill, who argue that freedom must be protected not only from State interference, but also from the "despotism" of the majority and popular sovereignty.
The situation in France: In France the Restoration
ended with a real call to the throne by Napoleon to Louis XVIII that the Senate, blocking the Senate bill to establish a Constitutional Assembly, decided to grant a Charter of rights which the King stressed that the Charter itself and had been ordered by the providence to restore the French people in the ancient respect for the institutions.
In this way, however, Louis XVIII was not able to satisfy neither the liberals nor the monarchists: elections in the spring of 1815 the ultras were to win the day over the net and forced the king to dissolve the rooms. Few months later with the assassination by an extremist leader of the Republican ultras, the Duke of Berry, and the ascent to the throne of Charles X, France had fully completed its restoration, and civil liberties won by the French Revolution trace remained.
REVOLUTION!
Italy: In Lombardy, the educated middle classes form an opposition to liberal immigration Austrian rule. The opposition is a space of expression in the "Council", the magazine founded in 1818 by Porro Lambertenghi under the guise of literary criticism, but the real aim of bringing liberal ideas to the wider public, but the magazine was complained a few months later. Meanwhile, in Piedmont and Lombardy was founded dell'Adelfia secret society, which found its adherents, especially in military circles. Mold more radical and egalitarian position was influenced by the Sect of Sublime Masters perfect, with the ultimate goal of a communist-style society. In Lombardy, the Italian Federation Confalonieri based Meanwhile, more moderate mold, and flourished in southern Italy, the Carbonari.
1821: The first result of the Carbonari was to bring the military Neapolitan insurrection that forced Ferdinand to concede a constitution. In the wake of the rebellion, Palermo proclaimed the independence of the island, but the revolt was quickly quelled. In Turin
Santarosa obtained the support of Prince Charles Albert, causing a riot in the Piedmont region. Victor Emmanuel I abdicated in favor of his brother Charles Felix, but a provisional government of the regency liberal offers to Charles Albert, whereby a constitution. Carlo Felice, disavowed Carlo Alberto, Austria for help.
Spain: Ferdinand VII of Bourbon, who returned to Madrid, suppresses the formation previously launched by the Liberals, readmit the Jesuits in Spain and gives life to the Inquisition, forcing also afrancesados \u200b\u200band liberals into exile. The rebellion came from the army, in which the Carbonari had done extensive propaganda: the revolt began with the refusal of several regiments to go in the American colonies to quell the rebellion. In Cadiz, where the regiments were assembled, was pronounced an oath to the Constitution, which forced the king to issue a new card Ottria. The example of Spain was soon followed by Portugal.
Russia: The sudden death of Alexander I, causes a brief dynastic crisis: officials in Moscow tried to impose Constantine, who was more willing to liberal reforms. The so-called Decembrists "- since their uprising took place in December -, were repressed during a military parade, which sought to foment against the neoz Nicholas I.
England: Two main problems: increasing the price of wheat as a result of the ban on imports and demobilization of soldiers. The Tory government enacts the death penalty for incidents of damage to property, is detached from the Quadruple Alliance, reviewed the criminal law. In 1819 a large demonstration organized working in Manchester is violently repressed by police. But the continuous revolts led the government to repeal the law against the workers' associations and to legalize the trade union activities. Ten years later the election of a Catholic candidate O'Connell forced the government to abolish the Test Act, which prohibited any person not elected to be Protestant parliament. The government later promoted the abolition of 140 polling stations, the so-called rotten boroughs, a majority of seats were then allocated to the emerging industrial cities. In addition, new laws were forced on the poor a huge amount of peasants to migrate to the industrial cities if they had not wanted to be confined in the workhouses. The reaction
: In 1820 Metterncih Troppau to convene a conference, trying to defend the principle of defense of the Quadruple Alliance. England, however, refuses to participate, while Ferdinand rejects the constitution and called for help. France is in charge then send a reinforced army in Spain, is greeted as a liberator from clerical mob. All the movements are so repressed, and back to Europe again in 1815.
FRANCE LIBERAL
In 1830 the monarchy of Charles X became incompatible with the interests of the emerging middle class intellectual affairs, liberal-minded. The majority of the elected chamber soon arrived to claim the power to refuse to trust the government; Charles X proclaimed the dissolution of the rooms, but a new Liberal election victory led him to issue decrees that sounded like a real coup was: the room was dissolved and new elections were held under a new electoral method, and the freedom of the press was subjected to heavy restrictions. The people of Paris rose up and forced to leave France Charles X: the bourgeoisie accepted the nomination to the throne of Louis Philippe d'Orleans, which was soon proclaimed king "of the French." The Constitution Ottria by Charles X was extensively modified and proclaimed the sovereignty of the French people, restored the flag as national flags, granted freedom of the press and pointed to Catholicism as the religion of the majority of French people and not as a state religion. In this way, Louis Philippe rightly assumed the title of king bourgeois liberals could again take the lead in government, but the political situation soon proved to be overwhelmingly in favor of financial bourgeoisie. In short, the working class took to the streets of Paris and Lyon: the bloody repression that followed caused thousands of deaths, which were joined by thousands of French people killed by cholera.
The French riots led a new revolutionary wave in Europe: Belgium seceded from the Netherlands, Poland, rivoltatasi against the Tsar, proclaimed its independence, albeit short-lived in Italy Ciro Menotti he led a revolt in the cities of Romagna, but that was drowned in blood.
PARIS REVOLUTION
During the crisis of the Ottoman Empire and the ensuing war between Egypt and Turkey, France decided to stand up sharply in favor of the former, while Britain sided with Turkey: they can not risk a war against the British Empire, France withdrew its troops quickly, the Liberal government was forced to resign. In short, popular discontent is quickly turned into a revolt, violently repressed. The people of Paris, however, rebelled, and in three days the power Orleanist fell. The interim government, a Socialist majority, immediately proclaimed a republic, under universal male suffrage, eliminating the death penalty for political crimes, abolishing slavery in the colonies and guaranteeing the right to work. In particular, Louis Blanc, known socialist leader, promoted the establishment the Ateliers nationaux, cooperative factories owned by the state.
Even the German revolution in Switzerland Germany and Austria, the first driven by a nationalistic reasons, the second from the growing economic crisis, the discontent grew. On March 13, 1848, in Vienna, a revolt led by members of the upper class power to put an end to thirty years of Metternich and forced the emperor to grant a constitution. In the Germanic Confederation approached us to unity of the state, but the contrasts between the fledgling German Constituent Assembly and National Assembly also did this project fail.
THE FORTY-EIGHT IN ITALY
In Italy, meanwhile, were outlined various political currents. Gioberti proposed the unification of Italy under the guidance of the pope, he was opposed Balbo, who saw the House of Savoy as the only possible regency. Mazzini was a different view, arguing that the struggle had to be aimed at the absolute freedom of all people and all peoples to achieve this goal he founded the Young Italy Association, whose programs were - for the first time - public. The failure of the first two attempts of insurrection and the consequent exile in London, Mazzini, however, forced to change strategy: back from England, he founded the first Italian trade union under the name of Union of Italian workers. The failed attempt of the revolutionary brothers convinced Flag Mazzini to be moving further away from the assumption insurgency: liberals and moderates joined together to obtain a constitutional monarchy.
The election of Pope Pius IX in 1846 opened the way for liberal reforms in short time, rebelled against Piedmont and Tuscany, forcing Charles Albert to grant a constitution, while Palermo rebelled and was granted a constitution. Venice, following the overthrow of Metternich, rose up and proclaimed a republic headed by Tommaseo and Manin.
In Milan, the people rose up against Austrian rule: the famous five-day, General Radetzky's troops were defeated and Casati, exponent landed aristocracy, he was appointed head of the new provisional government. Fearing the contrast of democratic and Cattaneo Cernuschi, the government also offered from Milan to the domain of the Savoy monarchy.
Meanwhile, to counter the wave of Democratic and Republican, Carlo Alberto officially declared war on Austria: the Piedmontese army - joined by some troops sent by the pope - was defeated after a few days Custoza. While Carlo Alberto fled precipitately leaving Milan back into the hands of the Austrians, General Salasco signed the armistice. The event marked a moment of crisis for the liberal faction, to which was added the failure of the motions of Naples, where Ferdinand II had resumed power with a real coup.
In Tuscany were again the Democrats to gain power by establishing the provisional government, while in the Papal States, following the assassination of Prime Minister Rossi, enlightened conservative, a Constituent Assembly in 1849 proclaimed the birth of the Roman Republic led by Mazzini and Saffi, while the Pope fled to Gaeta.
reflux
France: In April 1848 elections for the establishment of a Constituent National Assembly saw the clear victory of the moderates, in order to curry favor with the populace that they had been elected, proceeded immediately with the cancellation of Ateliers nationaux. Socialists and radicals sought to down protest in the square, but the revolt was suppressed in blood. A few days later, the right to elect to the presidency could Louis Bonaparte, who printed an address authoritarian and police to the second republic. In 1851, Napoleon would have transformed his presidency into a dictatorship, assuming the title of Napoleon III.
Germany: The clashes between the two projects of national unification of meetings in Frankfurt (the first based on the supremacy of Austria, the second Prussian hegemony), ending with the refusal of the crown by Frederick William of Prussia and restored Austrian political pressure.
Italy: Under the pressure die democratic and resumed the Austro-Piedmontese but after 80 hours the Piedmontese army was forced to sign the surrender. At the same time the fall of Tuscany and the Venetian Republic, Napoleon III wins while the troops of Garibaldi in Rome and Pius IX allows to return to the Vatican.
