GALILEO
Distinguishing features:
defends the autonomy of science from any external interference.
has a great respect for Aristotle, which is considered much more a disciple of Aristotle and those who claim to pretend to study nature in books, according to an unscientific dogmatism.
Independence science - theology
God speaks in two books: the book of writing and the book of nature. Between these two points of revelation there can be no conflict: If there is, is because of an interpretation erroneous.
If the conflict concerns a truth of faith, is the wrong interpretation of nature. If the problem is physical, it must instead review the Scripture, because the language is anthropomorphic, that is suitable for simple people to understand what God wants to reveal. It can not be interpreted literally, since it uses a metaphorical language. The purpose of the Bible is not scientific, but saving (as vadia to heaven, not how the heavens go ").
The mathematical method-experimental
Galileo uses the mathematical method experimental research is the result of natural phenomenon, hypotheses are formulated in this regard, experiments with test (or reproductions artificial natural phenomenon eliminating interference). If the experiment confirms the hypothesis, this theory becomes that, if formulated in a mathematical way, is able to explain all possible cases of the natural phenomenon given. So
:
search for the cause of a phenomenon -> formulating a hypothesis -> test experiments -> formulation of a theory in mathematical terms -> application of the theory to all cases of the phenomenon given
BACON
Distinguishing features:
lives in the Elizabethan age, is enthusiastic about the modern era, polemic against the culture of scholarship and speculation, the occult sciences, the ipse Aristotelian dixit.
accuses the school of real estate.
Scientific research is increasing, but not lonely, but the Community, as Aristotle said. The research requires collaboration and communication, Bacon is therefore contrary to the cultural nationalism: a cosmopolitan culture should be, universal.
Purpose of knowledge:
Knowledge must have a practical purpose: the dominion over nature. Knowledge must begin with the desire to bend nature to their purposes, but nature is dominated by obedience, not forced, since the ignorance of the causes makes it impossible to trace the effect. You need to "extend the borders of every human thing possible. "
The story is a step towards new knowledge leading happiness to man.
more man knows, the most progress: then evil is the absence of knowledge.
The inductive method:
deviates Aristotle with regard to the method of knowledge: according to Bacon the deductive method is not scientific. The syllogism does not move and has no heuristic value, because it just proves what we already know the minor premise.
The method used is inductive, with whom you come from the particular to the universal. Aristotle, however, applied this method in a perfunctory manner, limiting numbers of wing cases, while should be applied according to the law of gradualism.
To explain the right method, Bacon used a metaphor:
ants gather to eat, and how the empiricist philosophers, who take only the world of experience.
Spiders produce the cloth from their own, without external, and as the rationalists (or innate), according to which knowledge is already within us.
Bees draw but the substance from the outside and then process it: apply it right the inductive method, which starts to process the experience with the intellect.
Both the primary qualities that the Aristotelian secondary qualities are known, until you get to the essence, but the reality is not knowable through the math: even Aristotle, Bacon thinks it can get to the essence metaphysics. The learning process must start from experience (a sign of modernity), but the reality is even non-quantitative (a sign of antiquity).
Idols:
To apply the inductive method must be perfectly free from prejudice but (idols): false concepts that hinder our learning process.
Freedom is the freedom from external constraints.
conceptual errors are the limitations of human nature, and its meaning is that of the intellect.
Idols of the Tribe: summarizes the intellect, assuming an order that has no match in reality. The senses are not enough to understand the forces that move nature.
Idols of the Cave: they derive from education, and personal prejudices, as if every man had inside a cave that refracts and distorts the light of nature.
Idols of the Market: Naming dall'inopportuna come to reality. Therefore depend on the language.
Idols of the Theatre: are their philosophical and scientific doctrines, fictional worlds that are blocking the very research.
Bacon wants to persuade the man to a critical mind, only freeing us from the idols we can validly apply the inductive method.
The truth is the daughter of the then time, not authority.
CARTESIO
Distinguishing features:
E ', considered the founder of modern thought.
studied in his youth by the Jesuits, but it is not satisfied with his culture. Denies everything he has studied, saying that nothing gives certainty: it is well known to the ancients, but we must not lose sight of reality, poetry and eloquence are natural talents, so it is useless to study, mathematics is useful, but do not use never in the right way, the philosophy is of little use to give certainty for the occult sciences are a set of superstitions.
The method: To get
the essence of things you have to use induction.
mathematical-experimental method is not applied only to nature but to all knowledge, since all reality is based on mathematics, and must be unique: everything that can not be reduced to mathematics is not knowledge but irrationality, mystery, magic and superstition.
There is only one level of reason, and that is mathematics.
Mathematics is a science based on unprovable axioms from which theorems are deduced. The axioms are intuitive, the theorems are based.
The reason might then know all the reality in deductive way, ie by subtracting the real innate principles.
Nature, so as the body is no longer seen as a whole, but as a set of related parties according to reports quantities. These relations are based on need, and then be reconstructed: the cause and effect you can get the effect back to cause.
The rules of the method are four:
1) The evidence must be avoided any notion that it is not obvious, namely that it is not clear and distinct. The concept must be clear and have no room for confusion with other concepts. If a concept is clear, for sure.
2) Analysis: the complex ideas are broken down into their components to arrive at concepts of simple and clear.
3) The summary: the simple ideas are connected to reconstruct the complex idea. Knowledge is passed from the simplest to the most complex gradually.
4) The list: you should check that the procedure is correct, has no errors.
The doubt and the cogito ergo sum:
The method works only if it is passed through the filter of the doubt, which must be methodical. Furthermore, the hyperbolic doubt is: do not understand and may not include all human knowledge. You can not be certain of anything, not even the question is beyond the doubt.
The senses deceive: the sense-impressions, although it seems beyond doubt, they are not, as may occur in dreams.
mathematical truths have more evidence, but also their are suspect: they look the same, but no one can be sure not to mistake ever.
In fact, we are also intrinsic "evil genius": the intellect is fallible. Doubt is thus a total
, hyperbolic, background: I can not be sure of arriving at clear and distinct ideas.
One thing, however, is hardly in doubt: of thought that doubts, the cogito. If you doubt it, I think. If I think, are. Cogito Ergo Sum. The "evil genius" can not deceive me: if they are deceived, I'm thinking. It 'a postulate self-evident, so is the subject of intuition and deduction.
Thinking and being are closely linked: it is the beginning of modern thought, in where the center is the knowing subject, not the reality to be known.
I know only the representation of reality that I do: I know just my thought content. Know, then, my thinking subjectivity.
Sum res cogitans, thinking is happening. The res cogitans is the soul, the man identifies himself with his soul and then thinking.
Ideas:
The content of my thought is the idea that the subjective representation of reality, the object in the contents of my thought. But the ideas are of three types:
1) Innate
2) adventitious (ab venio), or come from outside (experience)
3) or sham factitious (or pretend facio), which is formed by myself (like the hippogriff or chimera)
Cartesian Dualism:
addition to thinking substance, which constitutes the self, one must admit a bodily substance, the res extensa .
Res cogitans is unextended, conscious and free. The
res extensa and spatial unconscious and mechanically determined from above.
Among these substances there is a reciprocal relationship: the pineal gland (the epiphysis), which unifies the feelings that come from the res extensa and res cogitans forward to.
